NAPOLEON'S BALFOUR DECLARATION 1799

NAPOLEON'S BALFOUR DECLARATION 1799

by F. M. Loewenberg (1999/2006)[1]

               

Napoleon as Emperor at the moment of his corononation, wearing the collar of the Legion of

The Jews of Jerusalem would have prayed for the defeat of Napoleon when he invaded Eretz Yisrael nearly two hundred years ago.  Had they not heard that Napoleon had freed Italian Jews from their ghettos a year earlier?  Did they know that he had promised to recognize a Jewish state in Palestine, almost two thousand years after the last independent Jewish state had existed there?  Were they so happy with their Turkish rulers who continued to deprive them of full citizenship?  What was going on in Jerusalem at the end of the eighteenth century?

"The Rightful Heirs of Palestine" - that is how Napoleon Bonaparte, commander-in-chief of the French armies in Africa and Asia, addressed the Jews of the world in a proclamation he issued nearly two hundred years ago. In this proclamation he urged them:           

            Arise! Show that the once overwhelming might of your oppressors has not repressed the courage of the descendants of those heroes ... Hasten! Now is the moment which may not return for thousands of years to claim the  restoration of your rights...

How genuine was this proclamation? Moniteur, the official newspaper of the French government, published on May 22, 1799, a news item from Constantinople which stated,

            Bonaparte caused to publish a proclamation in which he invites all the Jews        of Asia and Africa to come and range themselves under his banners in order       to reestablish ancient Jerusalem.

The same news also appeared on the same day in another Paris newspaper, the Gazette de France.  A few weeks later the story was also published in the Berlin Vossische Zeitung. Why did Napoleon issue this proclamation? How did the Jewish world respond to it?  What was the reaction of non-Jews? What was the world situation in which this proclamation was issued?

                       

              

Napoleon's armies invade Italy and Egypt

In the last decade of the eighteenth century Napoleon was in command of a mighty French army that invaded and occupied Italy.  The Jews of Italy remember Napoleon as the general who liberated the Jewish communities of Ancona, Venice, Verona and Padua where for centuries Jews had been confined to ghettos and had been deprived of all of their rights. The medieval anti-Jewish laws had been abolished in all other Italian cities, but the Jews of these four cities were still required to wear the yellow badge whenever they moved outside of their homes. No wonder that Italian Jewry welcomed Bonaparte as their savior and believed that he had Messianic qualities. Many called him helek tov, the Hebrew translation of his name Bonaparte. 

After the successful invasion of Italy, Napoleon's armies moved on.  An armada of 55 warships and about 300 other ships, carrying an army of 43,000 soldiers, sailed secretly out of Toulon harbor in May 1798 in the direction of Malta.  Secrecy and favorite winds enabled the fleet to reach Malta without being detected by the English navy.  Once he had occupied Malta Napoleon brought to an end the humiliating condition endured for centuries by the local Jews who had been enslaved by the Knights of St. John since 1553. Jews captured by these warrior-monks were generally sold as slaves all over the Mediterranean world. The situation of those Jews who were kept as slaves in Malta was especially pitiful.  Now Napoleon decreed that all Jews in Malta were free persons and expressly permitted them to build and maintain a synagogue.

        

From Malta Napoleon's fleet sailed to Alexandria in Egypt. As his mighty fleet crossed the Mediterranean, Napoleon issued a proclamation to his soldiers:              

            Soldiers! You are about to undertake a conquest whose effects on the  

            world's civilization and trade are incalculable.  You will inflict upon        

            England a blow which is certain to wound her in her most sensitive spot...

            The people among whom we shall live are Mohammedans....Act toward them as           in the past you have acted toward the Jews and the Italians.  Respect        

            their muftis and imams, as you have respected the rabbis and the bishops....

Napoleon's army landed in Egypt on July 1, 1798, eleven days after leaving Malta. Alexandria was taken by storm on the following day. A few days later the French armies started to move toward Cairo which was captured some weeks later.  But at the very time when Napoleon and his armies succeeded in capturing the capitol of the Mamluk empire, the British navy, commanded by Admiral Nelson, scored a significant victory in the Battle of the Nile.  Almost all of the French ships that were anchored in Alexandria were destroyed in this battle. As a result, the French forces under Napoleon were now virtually isolated. From this time on, the Mediterranean became a British sea. Napoleon now found it   difficult to communicate with his government in Paris.  English warships could attack the French forces at will, as they did when they came to the aid of the besieged Turkish forces in Acres in the following year.  But Napoleon was a land-based general and failed to understand the implications of Nelson's victory.

                  

                         

Napoleon in Egypt

Napoleon's military victory over the Egyptian forces was complete, but he was unable to win the allegiance of the local population.  He tried very hard to be liked by them. Thus, he began to wear a turban, surround himself with native counselors, and accommodate his language and style of behavior to what he thought was Egyptian standards. But all of his efforts failed.  Instead of winning the allegiance of the natives, an insurrection of dangerous proportions broke out in October 1898.  Napoleon was forced to use heavy guns against the rebels in order to suppress this revolt.  Having failed to win the support of the Egyptian Muslims, Napoleon now tried to win the allegiance of those non-Mohammedans who had not participated in the revolt, primarily the Christian Copts and the Jews of Cairo.

The Jews had tried to remain neutral during the rebellion, even though they had much for which to be thankful. Napoleon had extended full equality to them, just as he had done to Italian Jewry a year earlier.  In an attempt to equate their status with that of the majority Muslim population, he appointed two rabbis, Sabbato Adda and Tolbi di Figura, as "high priests of the Jewish nation" (grand-pretres de la nation juive). Except for their appointment we know very little about these rabbis or their activities in the Cairo Jewish community.

Invasion of Palestine

Early in 1799 Turkey declared war on France. When news of the declaration of war reached elements of the Turkish army stationed in Palestine, their commanders decided to stop Napoleon by invading Egypt.  Napoleon became aware of this plan and hastened to implement his own plan to invade the Ottoman empire from the east by way of Palestine and Syria. In a letter to the Directory in Paris he outlined his strategy.   He ended his letter to the government in Paris with the hope that "When you read this letter, it is quite possible that I shall be standing on the ruins of the city of Solomon ..." Did he have plans to capture Jerusalem or was this merely a propaganda ploy?

Even before this letter reached Paris, Napoleon's armies had started to cross the Sinai desert on their way to Palestine. Success crowned the early phases of the invasion.  El Arish was captured ten days after the start of the campaign, Gaza was occupied five days later and Ramle fell in the first days of March.  

                 

From Ramle Napoleon could either continue his northward drive to Jaffo or he could bear eastward to Jerusalem. Many of his soldiers were eager to enter Jerusalem, but he noted in his personal diary that he had decided against this diversion because he did "not wish to be annoyed by mountaineers on difficult roads."  Despite many legends to the contrary, Napoleon never attempted to enter or occupy Jerusalem.  But throughout the world there were many who believed that he did, just as there were many who were convinced that his purpose in conquering Palestine was to reestablish a Jewish state.

                  

A Jewish State in the Holy Land

How did the world, and particularly the Jewish world, react to Napoleon's efforts to establish a Jewish state in the Holy Land? Rumors that Napoleon had conquered Palestine in order to reestablish a Jewish state spread rapidly throughout Europe and beyond.   In Hungary, the Hatam Sofer (Rabbi Moses Sofer,1763-1839) heard the news that Napoleon was about to proclaim a Jewish nation in Palestine. He urged his students to settle in Jerusalem and preached several sermons in which he made favorable allusions to the proclamation. He could not be more explicit in his admiration of Napoleon because the Hapsburgers, under whose rule he lived, were the traditional enemies of the French and would consider more explicit praise as treasonous.

Many European Christians believed that Napoleon had conquered Jerusalem in order to give it to the Jews.  A pamphlet published in Berlin in 1799 noted with satisfaction that many newspapers had carried the report that Napoleon had conquered Jerusalem for the sake of the Jews. The English were particularly intrigued by Napoleon's proclamation and saw in it both a religious and political threat to British hegemony in the Middle East.

Even in far off New York, Rev. Seichez, the rabbi of New York's only synagogue, preached a number of laudatory sermons about these events and compared Napoleon to the Messiah.              

             

Jerusalem's Jews respond

   

The report that Napoleon and his army intended to occupy Jerusalem and to proclaim the "Kingdom of Jerusalem" as a Jewish state also received wide circulation throughout Palestine. But the response of Palestine's Jews to Napoleon's reported plans was anything but warm.  The reactions of Jerusalem's Jews were different from those of their brethren in other parts of the world.  Napoleon's invasion of Palestine had created fear and panic among all elements of the local population, but especially among the Jews.

There is one report that after the fall of Jaffo a delegation of Jews visited Napoleon to offer their support and to tell him that they looked upon him as their Messiah. If this report is true, it is an exception because most Palestinian Jews wanted to support Napoleon.  This was especially true in Acres where Jews were forced and joined the Arab and Turkish forces in defending the city against Napoleon's armies.  At the head of Acre's Jewish community was Hayim Pirchi who served as finance minister to Ahmad al G'esar, pasha of Acres. Napoleon sent several messengers to Pirchi, trying to persuade him with all kinds of promises to defect to the French side. But Napoleon failed and Pirchi reluctantly remained loyal to the Turks.

The Jews of Jerusalem also accepted Napoleon's promises. They had suffered already greatly because the Muslims of Jerusalem suspected that they would side with Napoleon. This suspicion became even stronger when it was discovered that among the French invaders was a "Jewish legion," made up of twelve thousand North African Jewish solders.  The Arabs of Jerusalem decided to kill all Jewish residents once Napoleon's armies reached the vicinity of the city.  An informer told the Rishon L'zion, Jerusalem's chief rabbi, Rabbi Yomtov Algazi, and his assistant, Rabbi Mordecai Meyuhas (who would later succeed Algazi as Rishon L'zion),about this plan.  The two rabbinical leaders who were affraid of the demise of the Jews by the Ottoman's, immediately assembled all of Jerusalem's Jews, men, women and children, at the Wailing (Western) Wall in order to demonstrate their loyalty to the Ottoman Empire and to offer prayers for the defense of Jerusalem.  They prayed to the Almighty that He might save the Holy City and prevent its fall to the French.

After the special prayer service at the Western Wall Rabbi Meyuhas met with the Turkish governor of Jerusalem to suggest that the city walls be strengthened and that trenches be dug in front of them. He offered Jerusalem's Jews as volunteers for this work. The city authorities accepted this offer readily and ordered all residents to report for work at the city walls.  The chief rabbi, together with all of the city's Jews, was among the first to answer the city's call.  The governor then asked the Jews to continue to pray for the city's welfare, but the chief rabbi assured him that the Almighty had already heard their prayers and that Napoleon would not come to Jerusalem.

Jerusalem's Jews did not rely only on their prayers or on their volunteer work.  They knew that their Muslim neighbors were still intent on harming them.  As long time residents of the city, they were familiar with the tradition of baksheesh and did not hesitate to pay-off all those officials whose cooperation was essential for their continued protection.  A letter, signed by all of Jerusalem's rabbis, was sent to the European Jewish communities to describe the troubles experienced by Jerusalem Jews during these difficult years:              

            Our troubles started from the day that Egypt was occupied [by Napoleon]. Our evil                               neighbors started to accuse us and suspect our loyalties, saying        

            that there were twelve thousand Jewish soldiers among his troops. This

            they used as a pretext to persecute us until this very day.  For an entire

            year, every day, they attacked and almost killed all those who live in     

            Zion.  They keep up their attacks at all hours of the day. ... we cannot   

            really tell you how bad things are for us. ... we have been forced to sell

            all synagogue silver decorations in order to meet the payments they have           

            demanded from us... we have taxed ourselves until there was nothing left.                                      

    

There was great joy in Jerusalem when Napoleon's armies retreated after their failure to take Acres.  The Jews assembled at the Wailing Wall to give thanks for the miracle. The Turkish governor let it be known that he believed that Jerusalem was saved only because of the prayer of the Jews at the Wailing Wall.

Rabbi Nachman's pilgrimage

Another victim of Napoleon's invasion of Palestine was Rabbi Nachman of Breslov who just at this time had planned to undertake a pilgrimage to the Holy Land.   When he reached Instanbul he found that he was unable to continue to Palestine. Jews were not permitted to travel to the Holy Land because of the great dangers involved in such a trip at this time.  But Rabbi Nachman paid no attention to the dangers.

After much difficulty he found a small boat that took him to Palestine. When he arrived in Jaffo, the Muslims refused to give him permission to land since they suspected that he was a French spy. They had never seen a person who was wearing long ֹpֹeֹyֹoֹt as Rabbi Nachman did.  Nothing he said or did persuaded them to permit him to disembark in Jaffo.  Instead he was forced to head for Haifa where he was able to land. 

His followers received him with great joy when he visited Safed and Tiberias. But he was unable to visit Jerusalem because of the fighting that prevailed at that time throughout the land. Instead he went to Acres and spent some weeks there.  As the fighting came closer to the city, the Turkish defenders ordered all civilians to leave that city by boat within a few hours. Rabbi Nachman was evacuated aboard a Turkish warship that brought him to Rhodes and from there he returned to Constantinople without ever having stepped foot in Jerusalem.

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First published in Queens College of Jewish Studies, 2 (2000), 116-124.

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[1] Revised version of article published in Queens College of Jewish Studies, 2, 116-124, 2000.

Appendix 1

Prayer of the Children of Israel

Citizens of France and Italy
for the success and prosperity of our Mater's Army
The Emperor, the King Napoleon the Great
(may his glory shine)

Composed in the month of Cheshvan, year 5567 (1807)
Psalms chapter 20,21,27, 147

I implore Thee, Creator of Heaven and the Universe and all who inhabit it. Thou hast established all boundaries and limitations of the world and each nation with its respective language. Thou didst give the Sceptre of power into the hands of their kings to lead the people under their reign with righteousness, justice, an uprightness; that each person in his own place should live in peace.

How fortunate we are, how good is our lot, that from Thy hand glory and beauty were poured out upon the head of a powerful man, full of vibrancy, NAPOLEON the Great, to sit on the Throne of France and Italy. Could another be found as worthy as NAPOLEON deserving of such honors and kingship, who shepherds his people with sincerity and with the understanding of his heart? Thou, GOD, hast wondrously bestowed Thy kindness upon him. As other Kings of the world approached to fight him, Thou didst protect him on the day of war, Thou didst save him from those who stood up against him, until he subdued them and they sought peace from him. With his kind spirit, he spoke words of peace to them.

Kings have now untied to break their treaty and replace peace with the blood of war. They have gathered armies to fight against him and against all those who admire him. They have come to our borders, and our master, the Emperor, the King, is standing with the might of his army to confront them.

O GOD, master of greatness, strength, power and beauty, we implore Thee to stand next to his righteousness; help him, support him with Thy mighty arm: guard him as the apple of Thine eye with an abundance of strength and health. Save him from all evil and tell him "I am your salvation."

Send Thy light and truth, that they may lead him. Render foolish all those who rise against him for evil. Let Thy light shine upon his plans. Strengthen his armies and those of his allies.

May he succeed in all his endeavors and reign over his enemies. May they seek peace from him, for he is a man who loves peace, and peace he will exercise among his nation.

Father of compassion, Master of Peace, implant in the heads of all Kings and their advisers thoughts of peace and tranquility for the benefit of all mankind. Let the Sword not pass through our land and spill the blood of our brethren. Let all nations unite in total peace and tranquility forever. Amen.

(May the words of our prayers be acceptable to Thee.)

Appendix 2

Letter to the Jewish Nation from the French Commander-in-Chief Buonaparte
(translated from the Original, 1799)

General Headquarters, Jerusalem 1st Floreal, April 20th, 1799,
in the year of 7 of the French Republic

BUONAPARTE, COMMANDER-IN-CHIEF OF THE ARMIES OF THE FRENCH REPUBLIC
IN AFRICA AND ASIA, TO THE RIGHTFUL HEIRS OF PALESTINE.

Israelites, unique nation, whom, in thousands of years, lust of conquest and tyranny have been able to be deprived of their ancestral lands, but not of name and national existence!

Attentive and impartial observers of the destinies of nations, even though not endowed with the gifts of seers like Isaiah and Joel, have long since also felt what these, with beautiful and uplifting faith, have foretold when they saw the approaching destruction of their kingdom and fatherland: And the ransomed of the Lord shall return, and come to Zion with songs and everlasting joy upon their heads; they shall obtain joy and gladness and sorrow and sighing shall flee away. (Isaiah 35,10)

Arise then, with gladness, ye exiled! A war unexampled In the annals of history, waged in self-defense by a nation whose hereditary lands were regarded by its enemies as plunder to be divided, arbitrarily and at their convenience, by a stroke of the pen of Cabinets, avenges its own shame and the shame of the remotest nations, long forgotten under the yoke of slavery, and also, the almost two-thousand-year-old ignominy put upon you; and, while time and circumstances would seem to be least favourable to a restatement of your claims or even to their expression ,and indeed to be compelling their complet abandonment, it offers to you at this very time, and contrary to all expectations, Israel's patrimony!

The young army with which Providence has sent me hither, let by justice and accompanied by victory, has made Jerusalem my headquarters and will, within a few days, transfer them to Damascus, a proximity which is no longer terrifying to David's city.

Rightful heirs of Palestine!

The great nation which does not trade in men and countries as did those which sold your ancestors unto all people (Joel,4,6) herewith calls on you not indeed to conquer your patrimony; nay, only to take over that which has been conquered and, with that nation's warranty and support, to remain master of it to maintain it against all comers.

Arise! Show that the former overwhelming might of your oppressors has but repressed the courage of the descendants of those heroes who alliance of brothers would have done honour even to Sparta and Rome (Maccabees 12, 15) but that the two thousand years of treatment as slaves have not succeeded in stifling it.

Hasten!, Now is the moment, which may not return for thousands of years, to claim the restoration of civic rights among the population of the universe which had been shamefully withheld from you for thousands of years, your political existence as a nation among the nations, and the unlimited natural right to worship Jehovah in accordance with your faith, publicly and most probably forever (Joel 4,20).

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5. The New Judea, vol 16, September 1949
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